2025

The history of a Dutch trading colony

Everyone probably knows New York City and also knows that it is located in the state of New York (NY). However, it was founded over 400 years ago as a fortress and trading post called New Amsterdam (Nieuw Amsterdam) in the Dutch province of New Netherland (Nieuw Nederland).

A look back at 40 years (1624 to 1664) of Dutch colonial history.

In this article

1. 1. The early Netherlands
2. 2. The Dutch East India Company in Amsterdam – the first joint-stock company?
3. 3. After the VOC comes the WIC
4. 4. Letters of trade for the WIC
5. 5. Economic competition with Spain, France, and England
6. 6. Henry Hudson appears
7. 7. From Amsterdam to New Amsterdam
8. 8. The province of New Nederland gets its administrative structure
9. 9. The myth of the Manhattan purchase
10. 10. Peter Minuit, third Director-General of the Province of New Netherland
11. 11. The Dutch and the indigenous inhabitants
12. 12. Conflicts in the shadow of the fur trade
13. 13. Meanwhile in England – King Charles II
14. 14. James, Duke of York, conquers Fort New Amsterdam
15. 15. Pieter Stuyvesant, the last Director-General
16. 16. New Amsterdam becomes New York
17. 17. Surrender is not the same as peace
18. 18. List of the seven Dutch governors
19. 19. How can we imagine New Amsterdam?
20. 20. A dark spot – the West India Company in the slave trade
21. 21. Place names from New Amsterdam in present-day New York
22. 21. What became of the West India Company?

The early Netherlands

From around 1100 onwards, the area that now comprises Belgium and the Netherlands was referred to as terra inferior, meaning low-lying land.

From 1556 onwards, it was part of the Spanish branch of the Habsburg Empire. However, from 1567 onwards, the Dutch attempted to drive out the Spanish. Seven provinces, specifically Friesland, Groningen, Overijssel, Holland, Gelderland, Utrecht, and Zeeland, joined forces to form the States General.

In 1648 (as part of the Peace of Westphalia), the Republic of the United Netherlands was finally acknowledged by Spain.

The present-day kingdom, ruled by the House of Orange-Nassau, has only existed since 1815.

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The Dutch East India Company in Amsterdam – the first joint-stock company?

The history of the city of Amsterdam can be traced back to around 1150. In 1595, the Nieuwe Compagnie op der Vaart op Oost-Indie was founded there, better known as the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or VOC for short.

The first shares in this company were issued in Amsterdam in 1602. It was probably also the world's first joint-stock company. This would make Amsterdam the city with the first stock exchange. The company was managed by 17 governors, known as de Heren XVII (seventien).

After the VOC comes the WIC

The company was granted the exclusive right by the States General—originally for 24 years—to trade and sail within the republic in the concession area between two meridians specified by the States General.

The western border was the meridian passing through the easternmost point of New Guinea, and the eastern border was the meridian passing through the Cape of Good Hope.

Letters of trade for the WIC

As was customary in other European countries, both companies were granted trade monopolies by the government. Other terms for this are charter or free trade charter.

Among other things, the WIC was granted a monopoly for South and North America. Plans included the fur trade, the Caribbean spice trade, and the African slave trade.

In addition to exclusive trading rights, the charter also included the right to seize land, wage war, administer the territory, and administer justice. This allowed a profit-oriented group of shareholders to act like the government of a nation. The inhabitants of the affected areas were neither consulted nor involved.

Economic competition with Spain, France, and England

At that time, Spain (around 1513, mainly through Ponce de Leon, from Florida), France (from around 1562) and England (Jamestown, Virginia, 1607) were already actively trading and colonising North America. The first Dutch explorations began with the Dutch East India Company. From 1609 onwards, an area comprising parts of the present-day states of New York, Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Pennsylvania was mapped.

Henry Hudson appears

The English captain Henry (in Dutch: Hendrick) Hudson (~ 1570 to presumably 1611, lost after a mutiny) explored the northern east coast of North America in the service of the VOC with the ship Halve Moen (Half Moon).

Bereits 1587 war er Teilnehmer einer englischen Expedition unter Kapitän John Davis gewesen, die einen nördlichen Seeweg nach Indien suchte, die sogenannte Nordwestpassage. Danach war er von 1607 bis 1609 Kapitän für die englische Muscovy Company im Russlandhandel.

He was also commissioned by the Dutch East India Company to search for this Northwest Passage in 1609.

He also mapped a river that the Mahican people living there called Mahicannituck (water that always flows). Hudson marked it on his map as Noord Rivier and later named it Mauritius Rivier in honor of Maurits van Nassau, Prince of Orange, one of the Heren XVII. Today, this river bears his name, Hudson River. Further north, he also explored an area in what is now Canada that we know as Hudson's Bay.

From Amsterdam to New Amsterdam

From 1612 onwards, regular trading voyages from Amsterdam to North America began, also through the VOC, starting with Captain Arnout Vogels.
Another captain named Adriaen Block was probably the first to use the name Nieuw Nederland (New Netherland) for the area between the French colony of Quebec (now Canada) and English Virginia in 1614. The fortified post of Nieuw Amsterdam (New Amsterdam) was also established that year.

Novum Amsterodamum 1650 (New Amsterdam) Painting by Laurens Block

The province of New Nederland gets its administrative structure

New Nederland was officially founded as a province in 1623, now by the West India Company.

Systematic settlement began in 1624. The settlers were mainly Walloons who had fled from the southern Netherlands, now Belgium, which was temporarily under Spanish rule at the time. Their motives were predominantly religious, as they did not want to accept the Roman Catholic faith demanded by the Spanish.

In 1624, New Amsterdam officially became the administrative seat for the province of New Netherland.

That is why the WIC purchased the island located between the Noort and Oost Rivers (Hudson River and East River) in 1626. The sellers were the Lenni Lenape, also known as the Delaware, who lived there. In their language, which belongs to the Algonquin language group, the island was called Manna-hata, meaning “hilly land.” The spellings vary, as the Lenni Lenape did not have a written language.

The myth of the Manhattan purchase

It is often said that Peter Minuit, the third governor or Director Generaal of the province of New Nederland from 1626 to 1632, purchased the island from the Canarse Band of the Lenni Lenape for 60 guilders. In today's purchasing power, that would be about 1,200 US dollars.

In fact, there is no conclusive documentation on how this trade was conducted.

Neither the archives of the former WIC in Amsterdam nor any surviving documents by or about Peter Minuit mention the purchase of Manhattan.

Only in the State Archives in The Hague is there a report dated November 5, 1626, written by Pieter Schagen. In it, he informs the Staten Generaal, i.e., the Dutch Congress, that Minuit has acquired the island of Manhattan for the WIC. The report contains no further details. At the time, Pieter Schagen was both a member of Congress and, as its representative, one of the Heren XIX, the governing body of the WIC.

We can safely assume that the Dutch had a different idea of land purchase than the Lenni Lenape. The idea that someone could own land was completely foreign to them. They probably assumed that they had merely granted the Dutch the right to use the island.

For us, the name Peter Minuit will always be associated with the purchase of Manhattan.

Peter Minuit, third Director-General of the Province of New Netherland

In 1626, he was sent to New Netherland with the task of developing other trade opportunities alongside the fur trade and investigating which items from the Netherlands could be profitably exported to New Netherland.

In 1626, he succeeded Willem Verhalst as Director-General and held this position until 1632.

The Dutch and the indigenous inhabitants

As with all white people who settled in North America, when discussing Dutch activities, one must also consider their relationship with the original inhabitants, the Native Americans.

Unlike the English, for example, Dutch enterprises were not aimed at colonization in the sense of gaining new habitat. The intention of the West India Company was trade, not the permanent settlement of farmers or craftsmen. The systematic extermination of the indigenous population carried out by the English settlers was alien to the Dutch, as they did not want their land, but their trade goods.

Henry Hudson lands at Verplanck Point, New York, in 1609 to trade with the indigenous population.

In 1648 alone, approximately 80,000 beaver pelts were traded in Manhattan. Very few Dutch trappers were involved in this trade; most of the pelts were traded by Native Americans.

Thus, the natives were seen by the WIC as exotic trading partners. The Dutch were not interested in their culture, nor in imposing the Dutch way of life on them, and certainly not any Christian religion. The explicit statement that missionaries were undesirable because they caused unrest in relations between Indians and whites can be found in various correspondence between the governors and the WIC headquarters in Amsterdam.

The Dutch therefore pursued a policy of live and let live without imperialist strategies.

However, one of the founders of the WIC, Willem Usselincx, presented a concept for colonization. But he was unable to get it accepted by the Heren XIX.

Conflicts in the shadow of the fur trade

The Native Americans living in the province, some of whom were Algonquin and some Iroquois, did not have peaceful relations with each other. Other European parties, primarily the English, also attempted to incite individual groups against the WIC.

It should not be assumed that the Dutch behaved in a tolerant and benevolent manner toward the indigenous population. Theft and breaches of contract on the part of the Native Americans usually resulted in punitive expeditions by the WIC.

Some chronicles report that Hendrick Hudson already behaved very arrogantly towards the Lenni Lenape. The unjustified war waged by the penultimate Director-General, Willem Kieft (1638 to 1647), against the Indians is another negative example.

Alcohol, especially jenever, was banned as a commodity by the West India Company. However, many traders did not comply with this ban, partly because demand from local trading partners was high.

Meanwhile in England – King Charles II

In 1658, following the death of Oliver Cromwell and the end of the short-lived republic, Charles II became king of England.

James, Duke of York, conquers Fort New Amsterdam

As already reported, King Charles II of England gave the territories administered by the Dutch to his brother James, Duke of York, who later became King James II himself.

He equipped four warships and ordered an attack on Fort New Amsterdam.

They placed trade far above politics and refused to support their governor.

Pieter Stuyvesant, the last Director-General

New Amsterdam becomes New York

Surrender is not the same as peace

However, the armed conflict did not end there and continued into the Second Anglo-Dutch War from 1665 to 1667. This war was fought outside North America, however. In the Treaty of Breda, the Dutch States General officially ceded all North American territories to England and in return received Suriname in South America, formerly known as Dutch Guiana.
The respective indigenous peoples were ignored by both sides and not involved.

List of the seven Dutch governors

The seven Dutch Directors-General were:

1. Cornelis Jacobszoon (from 1624 to 1625)
2. Willem Verhalst (from 1625 to 1626)
3. Peter Minuit (from 1626 to 1632)
4. Sebastiaen Jansen (from 1632 to 1633)
5. Wouter van Tuiller (from 1633 to 1638)
6. Willem Kieft (from 1638 to 1647)
7. Pieter Stuyvesant (from 1647 to 1664)

How can we imagine New Amsterdam?

In Stuyvesant's time, New Amsterdam probably closely resembled its Dutch model.

People lived and dressed like they did there.

New Year's Day in New Amsterdam 1636 by George Henry Boughton

The houses in the center were three stories high with narrow gabled fronts (a necessity in cramped Amsterdam, unnecessary in New Amsterdam, but due to the mindset of the homeland).

The street front was usually built of brick, while the side and rear walls were mostly made of wood.

The covered front doors high above street level with their steep open staircases, known as stoops, were also adopted from their Dutch homeland. Small windows and high stepped gables emphasized this impression.

During the Stuyvesant era, the population is estimated to have been around 1,500 white people, including approximately 600 Dutch and Walloons, around 300 Germans and the same number of English, as well as various other nationalities, primarily French, Spanish, and various Eastern Europeans.

A dark spot – the West India Company in the slave trade

Slave auctions were held regularly in New Amsterdam, as depicted here in Howard Pyle's painting “First Slave Auction 1655.”

Place names from New Amsterdam in present-day New York

Various place names in present-day New York have their origins in the Dutch colonial period, to name just a few examples:

Broadway began its existence as Breede Weg. Long Island was previously called Lange Eylandt. Brooklyn takes its name from Broke Lande, meaning broken land. Bowery comes from Bouwerij, meaning farm or estate. The Bronx is reminiscent of the merchant Jonas Bronck, Block Island of the captain and surveyor Adriaen Block. Yonkers comes from de Jonker's Land, where this Junker was the lawyer van de Donck, a political opponent of Pieter Stuyvesant.

What became of the West India Company?

In contrast to the VOC, the WIC is largely forgotten today, even in the Netherlands. Its original headquarters, the West-Indisch-Huis on Herenmarkt in Amsterdam, is now used by the John Adams Institute, which is dedicated to cultural exchange between the Netherlands and the USA.

The building dates back to 1617 and was originally a wholesale meat market on the ground floor and the headquarters of the civil guard on the floors above.

From 1623 to 1647, it was leased to the WIC administration. The latter then moved out for financial reasons in order to save on the rent for an administrative building. The administration offices were integrated into the large warehouse complex on the IJ, the West-Indisch Pakhuis, which still exists today.

The VOC was dissolved in 1798.

The WIC underwent restructuring in 1674; this is also referred to as the 2nd WIC. Until its dissolution in 1791, it was once again heavily involved in the trade of African slaves.

This article is based on a chapter from the book Spotlights On American History (2021 tredition Verlag).

Wolf H. Reblin – Beaver Creek Pioneer

A hidden hut deep in the forest, the darkness illuminated only by a flickering light. The smell of heated mash hangs in the air, while steam curls from an old copper kettle. Here, away from prying eyes and law enforcement, moonshiners have perfected their art - the secret distillation of high-proof alcohol known as moonshine.

What may seem romantic and mystical today was once a bitter reality for many who earned their living this way. Moonshine was more than just a drink; it was a symbol of independence, resistance and the ingenuity of those who were prepared to risk everything. Immerse yourself with us in the history and techniques of moonshine and find out why this tradition is still fascinating today.

Was bedeutet Moonshine? – Die wichtigsten Begriffe im Überblick

Bevor wir die Welt des Moonshine erkunden, lohnt es sich, einige Begriffe zu klären, die eng mit dieser Tradition verbunden sind. Vom eigentlichen Prozess des Moonshinings über den Schmuggel bis hin zu den Werkzeugen und der Sprache der Moonshiner – hier sind die wichtigsten Begriffe, die ein besseres Verständnis über die Bedeutung von Moonshine geben.

Moonshining - Secret distilleries in the moonlight

Die Bedeutung von Moonshine

Moonshine bezeichnet vor allem in den USA und Kanada illegal hergestellte Spirituosen. Seine Hochzeit hatte Moonshine vor allem während der Zeit der Prohibition in den Vereinigten Staaten (1920 – 1933).

Moonshiner Camp – ca. 1936

Bootlegging - smuggling; not only in boots

The term “bootlegger” first appeared in 1889. It later became even more popular when city dwellers transported and sold alcohol in flasks in their bootlegs - both in large cities and in the countryside.

The related concept of “rum-running”, which describes the smuggling of alcohol by sea, also emerged during Prohibition. Rum was brought from the Bahamas to Florida, for example. Due to the low profits from cheap rum, smugglers soon turned to transporting more expensive spirits such as Canadian whisky, French champagne and English gin. These goods were sold at high prices in cities such as New York, Boston and Chicago - sometimes with smuggling values of up to 200,000 dollars per load.

Johnston County „Moonshine Bust“, 1951

Likker - The liquid gold

The still - probably the most important tool

A still is a distillation plant for the production of alcohol. Traditional moonshiners used simple, often homemade stills, which they hid deep in the woods to avoid detection. Access to clean water and proximity to roads for transportation were essential.

Authorities confiscate moonshiner equipment.

The distillation process - chemistry, physics and experience

The distillation process begins with a mash of water and fruit, grain or potatoes, which ferments with the addition of sugar and yeast. After fermentation, the mash is heated and the resulting alcohol evaporates. The alcohol then condenses in a cooler and produces the high-proof spirit. Traditional moonshiners have perfected this craft over decades.

Moonshining in America - the roots of an ancient tradition

The process of producing alcohol through fermentation dates back to ancient times. The Sumerians were already using evaporation techniques to produce oils around 1200 BC. The Greek scholar Aristotle described the distillation of seawater into drinking water around 400 BC. In the 7th century AD, Arab alchemists used distillation flasks to produce spirit of wine as a solvent.

Around 1260, Albertus Magnus, Bishop of Regensburg, developed the so-called still. At that time, high-proof alcohol was mainly used for medicinal purposes.

Moonshining - A legacy of European settlers

Moonshining is not purely American; the first European settlers brought their knowledge of schnapps production with them. In the New World, they adapted the techniques to local conditions and often avoided paying taxes.

The “Mayflower” is regarded as a symbol of the European colonization of America.
Alcohol, however, probably gained a foothold even earlier.

The first permanent European settlement in the USA was St. Augustine, Florida (1565). Alcohol was probably already being produced here. In Jamestown, Virginia (founded in 1607), home-distilled alcohol also played a role.

According to myth, George Thorpe, an English settler, used corn to make corn whiskey there around 1620 and is said to have laid the foundations for a long tradition. Even if the actual origin is controversial today, his descendants continue this tradition to this day as legal distillers.

Taxation and the birth of moonshining

Social aspects and resistance

In the Appalachians, alcohol consumption was considered socially frowned upon, yet consumption was widespread - often in secrecy and away from social gatherings. The secret sale of alcohol reflects the resistance to state control and still characterizes the fascination with moonshining today.

The Native Americans and distilling

While the Native Americans knew fermented alcohol, they did not use distillation. The reasons for this are unclear. For European traders, on the other hand, high-proof alcohol was a sought-after commodity that was sold to the Native Americans despite existing prohibitions.

The Whiskey Rebellion in Pennsylvania 1794

Around 150 Moonshiners were arrested, but all but 33 were released. Only two were convicted and pardoned by Washington in 1795.

„The Whiskey Rebellion“, 1794

To this day, the introduction of the alcohol tax and the suppression of the rebellion in Appalachia, proudly considered a moonshining center, remains an emotional issue.

Die Prohibition in den USA – Ein Verbot mit weitreichender Bedeutung für Moonshine

From 1920 to 1933, the 18th Amendment to the US Constitution prohibited the manufacture, transportation and sale of alcohol. This comprehensive ban, which went far beyond simple legal regulations, aimed to promote the health of citizens and reduce domestic violence. Prohibition was driven primarily by the temperance movement, led by evangelical church members - often women - who fought resolutely against alcohol abuse.

Prohibition protest march reenactment of Two Rivers Privity.

Despite President Woodrow Wilson's veto, the ban was passed by a two-thirds majority in Congress.

Protest marches were represented on both sides.

Historical presentation at the Cowboy Club Munich - Moonshiner's Ball 2022

However, the effects were the opposite: alcohol consumption increased and mafia organizations soon dominated the black market. Prohibition enabled criminals like Al Capone to make huge profits from the illegal trade.

Al Capone's “Mugshot” photo, Florida 1930.

The rapid production of low-grade “bathtub gin”, which could be produced cheaply and without great expense, was particularly popular. Moonshiners and smugglers profited, although the risk of detection increased. The low wages and corruption among the 2,300 Prohibition agents made it even more difficult to enforce the ban.

The public destruction of alcohol in the presence of the media at the time.

In 1933, Prohibition was repealed with the 21st Amendment to the Constitution - a move supported by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Roosevelt supported. For moonshiners, the end of prohibition meant a decline in the black market, but some regions of the USA still retain local alcohol bans to this day.

The end of Prohibition was celebrated in style.

The diverse range of moonshiners

Moonshine is much more than just whiskey. The term “Uisge beatha”, from the Gaelic for “water of life”, developed into “whiskey” in Ireland and “whisky” in Scotland. Irish and Scottish immigrants brought their traditional recipes to the USA, but had to adapt them to new circumstances. As peat and barley were often lacking, they experimented with local wood and other grains. Corn in particular, which had been a staple food of the indigenous people for centuries, became the main ingredient for corn whiskey. Rye was also used by the immigrants, giving rise to new types of whiskey such as rye whiskey.

Corn whiskey, often called “white whiskey”, was sold directly without barrel ageing and was particularly popular with moonshiners. Rye whiskey was also popular, but was later replaced by bourbon, which must contain at least 51% corn and is matured in new, charred white oak barrels. The name “bourbon” comes from a county in Kentucky that was characterized by its active moonshining tradition.

Tennessee whiskey and its special features

Tennessee whiskey, a special bourbon variant, must be produced in the state of Tennessee and refined using the so-called Lincoln County Process - a charcoal filtering process. Jack Daniel's is the best-known representative of this category.

Jack Daniel’s Tennessee Whiskey.

Gin - simple and popular

Gin enjoyed great popularity among moonshiners, as it was easy to produce without compromising on quality. A neutral alcohol made from corn or other raw materials was mixed with juniper and other botanicals such as citrus fruits and often refined in a second distillation. Simple variants such as “bathtub gin” were widespread during Prohibition.

American rum

Rum was produced in countries with sugar cane cultivation. Sugar cane is harvested, crushed and the juice obtained is mashed and distilled. Historically, rum production was closely linked to slave labor. Rum was just as popular as whiskey and was part of the traditional range of moonshiners.

From “criminal” to licensed distiller

Over time, some moonshiners established themselves with fixed customer bases and made distilling their profession. In order to operate legally, they had to apply for licenses for their distilleries and pay tax on their products, which inevitably increased prices. However, secret distillers remained active and supplied those who preferred cheaper or illegal alcohol.

The regulation of alcohol in the USA is still subject to various authorities. The Department of the Treasury, in particular the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB), is responsible for taxing and regulating production, while the Department of Justice and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) monitor illegal transportation.

In addition, specific local laws exist in each state. In nine states, including Alaska and Maine, the production of liquor for personal use is permitted, provided there is no sale and the minimum legal age is reached. However, this contradicts federal laws that only allow home production of wine and beer. To be consistent with state regulations, the relevant federal law would have to be amended.

From moonshiner to whiskey legend - Jack Daniel

The distillery used limestone-filtered water from Lynchburg, which made the whiskey particularly smooth. Together, Jack and Nearest Green refined the Lincoln County Process, in which the whiskey is filtered through charcoal made from sugar maple before being stored in barrels.

At the age of 20, Jack went into business for himself and eventually took over Call's distillery. He established his own distillery with seven employees, including Green and his sons, and produced “Tennessee Whiskey” under license. The classic recipe for his mash consisted of 80% corn, 12% barley and 8% rye. The spirit was distilled once, diluted with spring water, filtered through charcoal and matured in white oak barrels. The distinctive square bottle, which Jack designed himself, remains a trademark to this day.

Statue of Jack Daniel in front of an underground freshwater spring at Jack Daniel's Distillery

Jack Daniel's history is closely linked to the roots of moonshining, but his dedication and innovation made him a symbol of (now not so) high-quality American whiskey.

The unknown moonshine - Sotol

Sotol was a popular moonshiner product during Prohibition, but is now largely forgotten in the USA. Often compared to tequila, Sotol offers a more earthy taste. The base is the heart of the sotol plant, which grows wild in Mexico and parts of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. Unlike the agave for tequila, only the regrowing heart of the palm is harvested for sotol production, which makes production more sustainable.

Sotol spielte eine große Bedeutung als Moonshine und ist heute eher unbekannt

The use of the sotol plant goes back to the indigenous people, who used its leaves and fibers for everyday objects. With the arrival of the Spanish in the 17th century, the distillation of sotol began using copper stills. During Prohibition, sotol from Mexico even found its way into the distribution channels of the Chicago mafia around Al Capone.

The production process involves roasting the plant heart - traditionally on charcoal or more modernly in a smoker - followed by crushing, mashing with water and yeast and distillation. There are both fresh varieties (Plata) and matured varieties (Reposado and Añejo) in oak barrels.

Sotol of different “ age categories” from the Rey David distillery.

A well-known Sotol bottling is the Desert Door Distillery from Driftwood, Texas, which is also available internationally.

Texas Sotol von Desert Door

The cultural significance of moonshining

Moonshining is far more than the production of spirits; it represents a multi-faceted story of innovation, adaptation and resistance. From the first European settlers to modern distillers, moonshining tells the story of society's ability to adapt to economic challenges. From an illegal activity, it eventually became a craft that is coming back into focus in today's modern age.

Today, this tradition can be found in modern distilleries and specialized spirits, with the historical roots always present. The history of moonshining is a reminder of how cultural practices are passed down through generations and redefined over time.

Of course, it should also be mentioned that the responsible use of alcohol is essential. Responsible consumption of alcohol is central to honoring the traditions and craftsmanship behind spirits like moonshine. By enjoying consciously and respecting boundaries, we not only protect our health, but also contribute to a safe and respectful society.

Wolf H. Reblin – Beaver Creek Pioneer